Tag: Greek Myth

Dionysos and Hephaestus: The Rise of the Working Class

Foreword: This project was written for the Dionysus Mythology Course, taught at NoDE, with Fabianzzz as the teacher. I would like to flesh out this discussion more in the future and include citations.

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Dionysos and Hephaestus: The Rise of the Working Class
The mythic ascension of both Dionysos and Hephaestus to Olympus, and how alcohol tapers the anger of the worker’s revolution and births democracy.

In the 12th century BCE, the highly advanced late Bronze Age civilisations around the Aegean collapsed into a dark age. International trade ceased, empires fell, and history was lost. We don’t know the cause of this collapse but what resulted was the upheaval of the social structures of the Bronze Age. What was once numerous citadels controlled by warlords was laid waste to a diaspora of simple people. From the literal ashes of empires, a new structure of civilisation began to flourish, Democracy. Not kings, or tyrants, but average citizens, including the working class, were given the power to rule.

During the slow formation of the Classical Era after the Dark Age, myths began to be recorded of a lame, crippled, physically disabled god being born by the rulers of Olympus, Hephaestus. His deformity or ugliness was unfitting for the lofty clouds of heaven, and he was discarded by the gods. Falling to earth a reject. This grounding was formative for Hephaestus as necessity required him to be inventive, crafting a wheelchair and learning the art of metallurgy. As he advanced in his skill, he devised a plan to seek revenge on his parents, a gift. One of many gifts of Hephaestus that was cursed. This gift was a golden throne for his mother, Hera, its splendour, and beauty was such that it was irresistible. When the crafts god presented the throne to her, she did exactly what he expected her to do, sit upon it…and when she did Hera found herself stuck.

All the gods tried to remove her from her seat, but no power in the cosmos could lift Hera from her throne except Hephaestus, who refused to do so.  

Elsewhere on earth was a wandering god, a god of wine, passion, and freedom, Dionysos. This god once driven mad by Hera and cursed to travel forever to avoid her wrath, heard the story of his stepmother being trapped. One can assume that Dionysos delighted in her fate, but we also know he saw it as an opportunity to cease his wandering. Dionysos met with Hephaestus at his forge and introduced him to his sacred liquid, wine. Hephaestus experienced joy, happiness, and slow stupor as he drank the juice of Ampelos, and Dionysos took the opportunity to prop the drunken cripple on an ass and take him to Olympus. It was here, in front of all the heavenly gods – including the distressed Hera – that the god of liberty made his offer for the queen’s freedom. Accept both himself and Hephaestus into Olympus or be forever trapped.

Hera could not refuse, and Dionysos convinced Hephaestus to free her. Thus, the two gods elevated to the heights of heaven.

Dionysos (centre) bringing Hephaestus (left) to Hera (right)
Copyright theoi.com
Attic red-figure pelike, 440–430 BC

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This myth, like all Greek myths, has variations and different outcomes, though typically Hephaestus is married to Aphrodite and Dionysos becomes the life of the party on Olympus. Though what can it tell us of the social changes in history and why is it necessary for a craft god and wine god to enter the rulering sphere of Olympus?

It is a fact that ancient cultures depended on slavery to progress in development but in the previous century archaeological discoveries in Egypt have determined that the dependence of slavery was not as widespread as mentioned in Biblical telling. The quality of the lifestyle of the Pyramid labourers indicates that these monuments were not entirely built by slaves, but rather by free workers, citizens of Egypt. They were granted lodging, food and beer in wages and even had a system of free healthcare and funeral rites. Later in Athens, workers took great pride in their craft to the point it became a defining feature of their cultural ethos. The Greeks were amongst the first individual artists to sign off on their work. Pottery often features “I was painted by (artist name)”. This elevated craftsmen to positions of status in both social situations, and in terms of celebrity fame. Individual artists were commissioned by kings and political leaders, often becoming advisers, and friends to the ruling elite and even living in palaces. The Greeks saw the labourer as something more than a lowly peasant, underserving of the presence of the king, to a high-ranking member of the court/democratic council of leaders.

It is in the myth of Hephaestus that we see this change of social status develop, as the greatest of craftsmen, the god of craft becomes an Olympian. But what of Dionysos? What’s his role in this myth?

 “Wine cheers the sad, revives the old, inspires the young, makes weariness forget his toil.” Lord Byron.

Already mentioned was that the Egyptians used alcohol as a commodity, but in Greece, wine was given to all. On Dionysian holidays wine was freely distributed even amongst slaves and prisoners, wine and mead being the choice drink of the working class. It enabled them to be free from the stress, pain, and displeasure of labour. It also gave the people a form of expression. As Kerenyi mentions comedy was likely the first form of performance art, a drunken farce or open mockery of noble/public officials. Wine empowered the working class to not just mock the elite, but to stand up against them. Wine, the passionate equaliser, has spurred many a revolution…but also it has quelled them, as with the Hephaestus myth, wine is used to subdue the working class and to prevent revolt.

In later times, in Rome, the link between the working class and Dionysos and Hephaestus continued. Hephaestus’ Roman equivalent Vulcan had twins called the Palici, (Palikoi), the cult of the Palikos was one of the only examples of an emancipation cult, dedicated to freeing slaves and giving refuge to those who escaped their masters. Meanwhile, Liber (Dionysos) was called upon by the Proletariat and often associated with the legal freeing of slaves.  

So, if we look at this interpretation of Hephaestus’ myth, he can be seen as the working class revolting against the ruling elite, rising against to it to the point they are immobilised in their place of status, but unable to rule. We see this in revolutions, like the French, where women’s marches essentially besieged and imprisoned the Royal family and aristocracy in the Palace of Versailles. Hephaestus does the same to Hera. Dionysos acts as the negotiator but at the same time, he demands equal rights to the elite (Olympians), thus establishing Democracy, equality and labour rights.

Book List with Comments

A Note: This is a developing list and will be edited to include more books in the future. (Last edit: 31/07/25)

Modern Books – Academic and Pagan:

– Ancient Greek Cults: A Guide by Jennifer Larson: (Larson is a modern academic who details a lot of new information regarding Greek religion, she has several books on this topic, all recommended.)

– Ancient Greek Religion by Jon D. Mikalson: (This book is designed to be an easy-to-approach discussion on Greek religion.)

– Greek Religion by Walter Burkert: (Burkert is a classic author who introduced Hellenic Polytheism to larger audiences. However, some of his writing is dated compared to recent studies. He has other books on Mystery cults and Orphism.)

– Hellenic Polytheism: Household Worship by Christos Pandion Panopoulos and Vasilios Cheiron Tsantilas: (Aka Household Worship is a book by the religious reconstructionist organization in Greece, Labrys. A second volume will be released soon.)

– Kharis: Hellenic Polytheism Explored by Sarah Kate Istra Winter: (Kharis is by a polytheist/animist, it includes both modern and ancient polytheist ideas.)

– Myths, Muses and Mortals: The Way of Life in Ancient Greece by William Furley: (this book has just recently been published, it covers much of Greek life, from fashion to Mystery religion. Most topics are brief, but is a good reference and easy read.)

– Old Stones, New Temples by Drew Campbell: (This book is currently out of print and can be difficult to find physically. However, it is available digitally through the Hellenion organisation.)

– Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group – a publishing house, has a series of academic books called “Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World”, each book is dedicated to a particular god or hero.

– The Waters of Mnemosyne: Ancient Greek Religion for Modern Pagans by Gwendolyn Reece (I have yet to read this but it is highly recommended by my pagan peers. Reece is a pagan/polytheist writer.)

– Notable authors/academics: Fritz Graf, Karl Kerényi, Radcliffe G. Edmonds, Robert Parker (Parker’s books are notable for festivals, and miasma), Sarah Iles Johnston.

Ancient Books:

– Homeric Hymns attributed to Homer, but by multiple anonymous poets: (I recommend direct modern translations.)

– Greek Magical Papyri (AKA PGM: A Greco-Egyptian spell book, a translated volume 1 is currently available by Hans Dieter Betz.)

– Iliad / Odyssey by Homer

– The Orphic Hymns attributed to Orpheus, but by an anonymous poet/s, (recommended translations: Apostolos N. Athanassakis, Patrick Dunn, Sara L. Mastros. More info below.)

– The Works and Days / Theogony by Hesiod

– There are lots of authors from antiquity that give insights into the Greek way of life, and poets with hymns, this can include Aristides, Callimachus, Herodotus, Pausanias, Pindar, Plato, Sappho etc. theoi .com often has citations and references from various authors.

Dionysian Pagan Authors:

– Eleuthereus: Towards a Theology of Dionysian Liberation by Fabian MacKenzie (a unique book that explores the philosophical ideals of Dionysian Liberation Theology.)

– Dionysos: Exciter to Frenzy by Vikki Bramshaw: (Covering basic Dionysian concepts, Bramshaw approaches Dionysus from a Wicca POV, but the author relies heavily on Kerenyi and Otto.)

– Liber Dionysi by Fabian MacKenzie: (a great reference for mythology, Mackenzie’s analysis and insight on these myths are also welcomed. This book is part of a collection of self-published books.)

– The God of ecstasy: Sex-roles and the madness of Dionysos by Arthur Evans: (Evans is a queer pagan activist. This book explores gender and queer roles by examining The Bacchae. How the play subverts the conventions of the patriarchy both in antiquity and modernity.)

– God Who Comes, Dionysian Mysteries Reclaimed: Ancient Rituals, Cultural Conflicts, and Their Impact on Modern Religious Practices by Rosemarie Taylor-Perry: (I have not read this book, but it examines Dionysian Mysteries and plants. I am also unsure if Taylor-Perry is pagan…will edit if I am incorrect.)

– Written In Wine: A Devotional Anthology For Dionysos – published by Bibliotheca Alexandrina: (As an anthology, it has multiple contributors, essays and poems.)

Dionysian Academic books:

– Dionysos by Richard Seaford: (Seaford is a modern academic, who overviews all prior writing and includes his own theories.)

– Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life by Carl Kerényi: (Kerenyi is a Jungian academic, though he provides a lot of insight into the history and development of the cults of Dionysus. Just keep in mind that some of Book 1, which details the Minoan way of life can be out of date.)

– Dionysus: Myth and cult by Walter Otto: (one of the early, most influential, academic books on Dionysus.)

–  There are also lots of specific books on topics regarding Dionysus like, “Dionysus and Politics” edited by Filip Doroszewski and Dariusz Karlowicz. “Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus” by Alain Daniélou. “The Dionysian Gospel” by Dennis R. Macdonald.

Dionysian Hymns:

–  Homeric Hymns Hymn 7 is to Dionysus, (I prefer direct translations Penguin classics is usually okay).

–  Liber Dionysi by Fabian MacKenzie, includes old and modern translations and hymns (see notes above.)

–  The Orphic Hymns good translations include Apostolos N. Athanassakis (a direct translator), Patrick Dunn (an academic polytheist), Sara Mastros (a witch/scholar). 

Essential Dionysian Myths:

– Dionysiaca by Nonnus: (is the last classical epic and is extremely long. There are two main translations: the Rouse version, which is old and open access, and “the Tales of Dionysus”  version, which is not a direct translation but modern.)

–  The Bacchae by Euripides: (I prefer direct modern translations. This play is often regarded as essential reading for Dionysians. Richard Seaford has a translation with commentary and analysis on the play.)

–  Theoi .com covers Most mythology.

Interpreting Myth

This post is inspired by Michael Webster’s Ways of Interpreting Myth course/lecture.

Introduction:

Mythology is a beautiful and important aspect of Hellenic Polytheism as it offers us a glimpse into how bronze age people looked at the world around them and their relationship with the divine. Out of the kaleidoscope of mythical stories, we see the correspondence between man, nature and the divine. Making myth essential to understand. However, we are sometimes faced with dilemmas such as:
“Is myth truth?”
“Does this horrible myth about a god change my opinion of that god?”
“Are these gods rivals because of this myth?” – so on.

The idea of this post is to provide insights into understanding and interpreting mythology and why it’s important not to take mythology at face value. Myths should not be read as literal, but at times they may contain certain “truths”, so how do we interpret myths?

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According to Michael Webster, there are 12 methods for interpreting myths, this post will discuss each in a summary. In some situations, one myth may be interpreted by multiple methods.

1. As a belief system

Belief system mythology are typically myths believed as a religious “truth”, but as a polytheistic culture, there were few uniform beliefs shared between the people collectively. However, certain myths enforced a general concept of the hierarchy of the divine; for example, cosmology myths usually agree about the establishment of the Olympian gods as chief gods, with Zeus as king. This forms a unified belief system. However, some myths are strictly local myths, therefore, they help establish local customs and cultic beliefs. For example, Theseus and the minotaur is an Athenian hero myth and helped establish the national identity of Athenians, but the same minotaur myth retold elsewhere in Greece may have replaced Theseus with another hero (Herakles).

2. Disguised history

Some myths may hide a trace of historical truth. This was noted in antiquity by philosophers, such as Euthemerus (300BCE), who speculated that the gods were originally historical living people and through ancestor worship, time and fame they were elevated to godhood (this is a debated theory, esp., in regards our modern knowledge of Proto-Indo-European religions ((PIE)). Other myths include the real conflict of Troy. Theseus and the Minotaur, which may be a myth explaining Athens’ escape from Minoan vassalage. The affairs of Zeus myths might explain the tribal “Divine Right” claims of kings and leaders or the development of different sects and beliefs. Battles between gods, giants and titans may also represent natural cataclysms.

3. Disguised philosophy or allegory

Ancient philosophers were often ashamed of the behaviour of gods in mythology and sought to rationalise myths by applying philosophical explanations, therefore, myths can be read as allegory. Examples are: Zeus consuming Metis (wisdom), this explains Zeus’ supremacy and wisdom. The Orphic story of Zagreus-Dionysus being slain and cannibalised explains the refinement of the grape to wine and the development of the human soul and the World Soul (Neoplatonist). The Gigantomachy may explain the gods’ conquests over the material and, thus, a division between material earth and immaterial heaven.

4. Fables as moral truths

Some myths detail social morals and basic ethics. Examples are the myth of Philemon and Baucis, which is a myth about Xenia (hospitality). The story of Lycaon attempting to fool Zeus into eating human flesh is about the immoral acts of murder and cannibalism. Apollo and Artemis slaying the Niobids is about hubris. Midas and the golden touch is about wealth vs nature and greed. These myths explain why something is bad and act as a warning for breaking these moral codes.

5. Allegories of natural events

Hellenic Polytheism is inherently related to nature, so of course, many myths reflect this. An obvious example is Persephone retreating to the underworld a few months in a year, which causes seasonal change. However, other myths can be interpreted in this manner, like Herakles and Hydra, which may be a myth about damming a river and irrigation.  Herakles’ labours may also be an early agricultural calendar, with each of the twelve labours symbolic of months of labour a farmer must fulfil to grow crops.

6. Pre-scientific explanations

Greek philosophers were always questioning everything, but often, there was no easy answer to these inquiries. Some myths explain things that were not understood. An example is Nyx and her cloak of night, which explains the stars. It was believed that there was a universal light called Aether, and when Nyx shrouded the world in her cloak, this light would beam through tiny holes in her cloak, making the stars. Chariot riders drawing the sun and moon is a mythic symbol common in PIE religions and are present in Greek myths with either Helios/Apollo or Semele/Artemis taking on the roles as drivers. These symbols, of course, explain the supposed movement of the sun and moon across the sky.

7. Customs, institutions, or beliefs

Similar to “2. Disguised as History”, these myths explain the function and formation of beliefs, customs and institutions. An example is Demeter’s establishment of the Eleusinian Mysteries. How Aristaeus learnt bee keeping and the development of the new year. Various myths regarding the founding of cities, like the competition between Athena and Poseidon and the naming of the city of Athens, or the myth regarding Cadmos and the establishment of the city of Thebes.

8. Religious power, metaphors of the unknown

These myths explain cult centres and establishments of authorities and divine order, such as Delphi being the centre of the world and home to the famous oracle. Landmarks like Mount Olympus as home of the gods. These myths can include divine order and customs surrounding culture and practice in worship like the Homeric hymn to Hermes and sacrifice.

9. Expressions of religious rituals

Myths that explain ritual practice and regulations. These myths can include those that detail initiation into Mysteries, the rituals and symbols associated with these rites. Other myths may explain why certain festivals were held on a certain date, like a god’s birthday, or festivals like the Dionysian festival of Anthesteria. These myths can include ideas of purity and miasma, why and how a person needs to be cleansed if they have committed a grievous crime like murder.  

10. Psychological archetypes

This is a more modern, analytical take on mythology, popularised by Carl Jung, who viewed myths as representing humanistic archetypes. This take on studying myths looks at similar patterns or themes in our human psychology. An example is how there often are gods of love in comparative mythology and why these gods, such as, Eros (Greek) and Kama (Hindu) shoot arrows of love, which highlights the human and primal attraction we face when falling in love — as if struck or shot with love. Other archetypes are tricksters, shadows, fathers, mothers, children etc. Looking at myth in this method can add a new layer to understanding.

11. Stories

Some myths are just stories, though an interesting aspect of comparative mythology is that these folk stories often share similarities, even in cultures that never encountered each other. Related to Jungian archetypes, it’s a method of comparing similar ideas; for example, myths regarding the sun and moon share similar themes in world cultures because it is a universal experience wherever we are. Flood stories are another example of this; nearly every culture has a “Noah’s ark” kind of story, obviously because flooding is a catastrophe that can occur anywhere.

12. Social systems or conflicts

This is an advanced comparative myth interpretation method known as the “structuralist method”, proposed by anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. Some myths embody in their structure contradictions and justify these contradictions. Themes include (quoting Webster): “noticing pairs of opposites like raw vs. cooked (Prometheus and some Norse tales), high vs. low (sky gods vs. earth gods), male vs. female, men vs. gods, profane vs. sacred, wild vs. tame, waste vs. cultivated land, and (most importantly) nature vs. culture.” A prime example is the myth of Zeus being fooled into accepting offerings of fat and bones instead of the edible parts of meat. Also related is the myth of Prometheus giving fire to mankind and the curse Zeus and other gods place on humanity (Pandora). These contradictions appear regularly in mythology as patterns and thus can be understood through these patterns as a whole. Webster recommends Edmund Leach’s book on Lévi-Strauss for additional information.

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Final words

With these 12 methods, it is possible to analyse myths or, at the very least, open the myths up for deeper insights. As I mentioned in the introduction, myths should not be taken at face value. There may be a particularly horrible myth about your favourite god that deals with sexual abuse, but this myth likely has a deeper meaning than just abuse. It may explain the transition of seasons or the divine right of the local royal family. It could explain the transition of a god to another or the cultic beliefs of the people. It’s not exactly about the ‘sexual’ act in the myth, but what the myth means underneath the storytelling.