Tag: paganism

Horns Magazine Issue #12 & Happy Halloween!

Horns Magazine is a gay-focused, LGBTQIA+ pagan/occult magazine. It features different voices from our various communities and includes beautiful homoerotic images (obviously NSFW and 18+).

I write for Horns Magazine, covering the history of LGBTQIA+ deities and spirits from ancient and contemporary paganism and other religions.

In the anniversary Halloween edition, Issue #12, I have written about the Aztec Flower Prince god, Xōchipilli. Xōchipilli was a challenging god to research and write about, as there is contradictory information about him from Aztec culture. This is largely due to Spanish attempts at erasure of Aztec customs and religion. It is widely believed that he is the patron god of homosexuals and trans/third-gendered people. Xōchipilli was celebrated every summer during a peaceful festival of love and flowers. Offerings of butterfly-themed dances and butterfly-shaped bread were given in his honour. This is likely why in Mexico today, the word for butterfly mariposa is used as a slur towards gay people. Anyway, enough spoilers, go read it for yourself. And of course, the other wonderful writing and art from the talented magazine contributors.

Digital download of the magazine is available now, physical copies will be for sale in the near future.

Happy Halloween to everyone who celebrates it! May it be spooky and horny!

My Notes on Otto & Kerenyi

This is for personal study and isn’t designed for academic use. I thought I’d share this here as a resource, as it includes interesting quotes and references to certain subjects. These notes are by far from comprehensive, but I still use them as a go-to reference.

(Edit: apologies for initially misspelling Kerenyi’s name. I get n’s and r’s confused, it’s a dyslexic thing.)

Dionysus: Myth and cult by Walter Otto (1933), Translated by Robert B. Palmer (1960) ISBN 978-0-253-20891-0

“The Pharmakos was led around the entire city to absorb every Miasma. He was then killed and burned or taken over the boarder of the country, just as one wipes a dirty table off with a sponge and then throws the sponge away.” P39 (Nilson, 112.F)

“Grim customs like these offset by more cheerful ones […] It was the custom in Tanagra for the handsomest young man to walk around the city in the Hermes festival with a ram draped over his shoulders. The god himself, as the story goes, once freed the city from a pestilence by making the rounds in this way, and the ritual was established to commemorate this event.” P43 (Pausanias 9.22.1.)

Note: Semele is the Phrygian name of the Earth Goddess and that Bakchos is the Lydian equivalent for Dionysos. P60 (This statement is questioned by Otto) Note: “Bakchai” a group of followers of Dionysos, “Nysai” a group of Nurses. P61

“According to the legend of Brasiai on the Laconian east coast, the child Dionysos was supposedly washed up on the shore in a chest together with Semele, and, since his mother was no longer alive, he was raised in a grotto by Ino.” P63, Pausanias 3.24.3.

“The one in the cradle” P82, Hesychius.

“[Whereas the gods] are invisible when they enter their temples on their feast days, Dionysos arrives in the flesh; ie., in a plastic image.” P83

“There can be no doubt, however, that Dionysus was thought and felt to be present with overwhelming certainty. He whom the women attend, he who always has a favourite at his side, stepped over the threshold of his earthly home and took possession of the mistress.” PP83-84

““Tree Dionysos”, Plutarch says, he was worshipped almost everywhere in Greece.” P87

Note: Masks of Dionysos Bakcheus and Meilichios were made from wood of grape and fig tree. P88

“Thus even the Gorgon is first supposed to have received her well-known masklike image because people once were in the habit of wearing her mask in apotropaic rituals.” P89

Note: Artemis Orthia is associated with Dionysos through her epithets. P104

“According to Nonnus Aura, too, the beloved of Dionysus, killed one of her new-born children and devoured it.”

Note from Nonnus: “The Indian Deriades complains of the impossibility of conquering Dionysos because the many-formed one was now a lion, a bull, a boar, a bear, a panther, a snake, and now a tree, fire, water” P110

“There is also a tradition that it was Dionysos who sent the sphinx to the Thebans.” P114

“The Agrionia (or Agriania, Agranoa) day of the dead P118 (Note: May have been linked to Anthesteria, the Agrionia took place one month after Elaphebolion.)

“In the new-born child the ancestor rises up out of darkness of death. This is the reason why the divinities of birth and fertility are so close to the divinities of death.” P138

“The madness which is called Dionysos is no sickness, no debility in life, but a companion of life at it’s healthiest.” “[…] it is the madness inherent in the womb of the mother.” P143

“Herodotus (says) there was an oracle of Dionysos in Thrace with a prophetess, as in Delphi.” P144

“This is why the Thebans considered an ivy-twined column sacred to the god and, in fact, called Dionysos, himself, the “One who is entwined around pillars”. “The spring at Thebes in which the nymphs supposedly bathed Dionysos after his birth was called Kissusa after ivy.” (Note Kissusa is another epithet for Dionysos.) P153

Note: according to Diodorus, the care of fruit, in general, is ascribed to him (Dionysos). P157

Pinetree ref P157

“Pindar: alludes to roses and violets with special affection, when it is said quite specifically, in fact, that “Bacchus loves flowers”, there, is nothing more in all this than that he happens to make his marvellous appearance in the beginning of spring, and the lovely progeny of earths floor announce his coming and adorn his path.” P159

“The charities from Orchomenus […] are called Dionysus and Aphrodite’s daughters. P164

“A wine jar, vine, a goat, a basket of figs, and then the phallus” – this is the description Plutarch gives us of the original simplicity of the Dionysiac celebration. P164

“Dionysos Melanaigis was Dionysus Morychos, “the dark one”.” P169

Note: Names of woman followers: Laphystiai, the Dionysiades, the Leucippides, the Bassarai, the Dysmainai, the Klodones, the Mimallones, the Lenai, the Genrarai. P175

“Aeschylus calls Dionysos “The womanly one” and Euripides “The womanly stranger”, and “man-womanish”.” P175

Note: Ariadne was closely related to Aphrodite. In Amathus Cyprus she was worshipped as “Ariadne Aphrodite.” P182

Note: Ariadne is said to have been buried in the Dionysian sanctuary. P182

Note: Ariadne had a sea crown, sometimes made of coral. Note: Ariadne has many links to the sea, including being a possible nymph that nursed Dionysos as a babe. P187

Note: the 8th of November was apparently the date of Dionysos “awakening” and on the island of Andros the None of January was his return with the sun. Chapter on Apollo discusses the possibility of Dionysos was in Delphi before Apollo’s cult. Starts P.202

Dionysos: Archetypical Image of Indestructible Life by Carl Kerenyi. Translated by Ralph Manheim 1976, reprint of the Mythos series 1996, ISBN: 0-691-02915-6

Part One

Notes on Chapter 1: The Spirit of Minoan Art: Zoe = indestructible life, Bios = dying life (rotting life, biodegradable), Physis = plant life. Kerenyi proposes Dionysos represents all aspects, though he is chiefly the archetype of Zoe. This is the core theme of the Kerenyi’s book.

Minoan Visions: Discusses Opium and the cultural influence on Minoan art.

Notes on Chapter 2: Light and Honey, Flaming New Year: Religious holidays set to the star Sirius, with the new year on the “dog day” summer solstice. This is observed in Olympia, Delphi, Athens and Epidaurus. “Hosian” a universal law that the even the gods cannot break. P30

Notes on Chapter 2: The Preparation of Mead: “According to Oprhic docrine, wine was among his last gifts.” P35 O. Kern, ed. Orphicorum fragmenta fr.116

“The original words “for to be drunk” and “to make drunk” are methyeim and methyskein. Rare and later is “Oinoun” (from oinos, wine) meaning “to intoxicate with wine.’ Echoes of Methy signify “honey’ not only in a number of Indo-European, but also a common Indo-European-Finno-Ugric stratum.” P36 (Cont. more details)

“Askos” An animal skin sack that was waterproof. P36

Notes on Chapter 2: The Awakening of Bees: Aristaios – domesticator of bees and mythical inventor of mead. P39

“Korykos” means leather sack P43

“Tainiai” narrow bands used to adorn sacred persons and objects. P44

“Liknon” a cradle and basket for sorting grain. Teos : Dionysian city in Aisa Minor. P45

“Pythia”, the Delphic oracle literally translated to “Delphic Bee”. P45

“Minoans gave a bull the name “Oinops” WO-NO-QO-SO (Linear B) meaning Wine coloured. P54 Note: Homer uses this name in regards to bulls.

In Greece the grapevine was called, “Hermeris” meaning “the tamed”. P57

In Attica Dionysos was called “Kissos” meaning Ivy. P63 (See notes from Otto)

“When grapes were pressed for wine people would sing a mournful song called “Lenos”. […] The second council of Constantinople, The Trullianum, 691 CE, formally banned the traditional song and crossdressing.
P67

DI-WO-NU-SO-JO : Linier B for Dionysos. P. 68

Note: Interestingly, the name “Pentheus” is early recorded and likely was an epithet of Dionysos. It literally means “great Suffering”. (Mega Pentheus”) PP. 69 – 70

Note: Melampous, the (mythic) soothsayer and priest introduced phallic worship to Greece. P72

“The wooden masks that were used in the Dionysian cult, either worn by or hung on a pole or tree in the centre of the rite. The Zoe that is present in all living creatures became a spiritual reality a man opened himself to it, perceiving it in a kind of second sight.” P80

“[Zagreus] makes it seem highly probable that on the kydonia seal we have a representation of Cretan Dionysos. The god holds fast the lions, two living beats of prey, with his bare hands. He tames them as it were, by a “laying on” of hands. He draws them into his sphere of influence and holds them captive.” P82

“In Greek, a hunter who catches live prey is called Zagreus.” P82

“The pantheon was roofed, roughly between 450 and 400 BCE.” P97

Note: Daidalos, the mythical creator of the labyrinth, is related to oil, which was stored in the palace. Hinting that the connection of the labyrinth was associated with oil delivery. P100

“Ariadne’s name may indicate that she was a dark goddess, the goddess of the mountain. Related to another similar character Koronis the “Dark-crow-virgin” and the goddess Peresphone.” P103

Note: in coins Ariadne is connected with the moon. P104

Note: The Minotaur’s name is “Arsterios” or “Asterion” meaning Star or Starry. P105

“Artemis Apanchomene”, is the hung Artemis. P106

Note: Kerenyi links Ariadne to Persephone, making her Dionysos’s mother. These mother aspects are also mentioned by Otto. (Persephone being mother to Zagreus.) PP110-111.

[…] “though marriage with this heavenly dragon Persephone’s womb became fruited, prepared to give birth to Zagreus, the horned infant.” P114 (Nonnus VI 120-697)

“The ‘mystic’ feature which we have presupposed in the relationship between Dionysos and Ariadne here appears in an archaic myth in which generations of birth never go beyond the same couple. Taking his mother or daughter to wife, the son or husband begets a mystic child who in turn will court only his mother. To such involvement the snake figure is more appropriate than any other. It is the most naked form of Zoe absolutely reduced to itself.” P114 (Note from Markos: Ouroboros and the myth of Phanes.)

“The snake, the genius as a whole, was indestructibly precent, bearing witness to the indestructibility of life in what was, in a manner of speaking, it’s lowest form.” P115

In Latin: “Taurus draconem genuitet taurum draco.: English: The bull is father to the snake and the snake to the bull.” PP117

Page 118 Discusses aspects of the Mystery cults.

““Dionysos Meilichos” his mask carved of fig wood. The name applied to the subterranean Zeus, who appears in votive reliefs as an anormous snake. Seducer in caves.” ““Bakcheus” the ecstatic god of life.” P123

Part Two: The Greek Myth

Note: Kerenyi discusses that he does not think the Dionysian cult was a spontaneous fad, nor a “missionary cult”, even though certain myths make it out to be. He note that other Hellenic cults have similar myths of a gods arrival and “take over”, such as Apollon. P140

Note: Discussion on the thanksgiving festival that marked Theseus’s return from Crete. This includes thanks to Dionysos for taking Ariadne in exchange for safe passage. PP145-146

Note: In Athens the festival Choës Day with the Aiora the “feast of the swings” signified the end of Erigone’s wanderings. It explains her myth of melancholy as the act of her hanging herself. Her death resulting in the marriage to Dionysos and her apotheoses to the heavens. Later the festival focused on her union in which saw ladies in waiting swinging on trees to advertise their availability for marriage.

“Swinging as a simple bodily activity, as a means of expressing intense joy of life.” “Swinging is also a natural magical action, for it artificially helps the swinger to attain an extraordinary state, hovering mid-air in a kind of ecstasy.”

“In this it so “more magical” than drinking wine. Between the two there is a kingship, but swinging involves still another element: an approach to the sky, to the sun and moon. The gloomy interpretation of the swinging […] [is to] atone for the death of Erigone by an epidemic of self-hanging […] the swinging was a substitute for this punishment.” PP156-158

Note: When Erigone ascends to heaven she becomes Virgo. P158

Note: Dionysos Melanaigis: “he with the black goat skin”. “They do not want the god in that form: they reviled him. Thereupon he makes them raving mad. In order to be cured, they obliged to worship Melanaigis, that is, the dark Dionysos in league with the spirits of the dead.” P163 (Suidae Lexicon) Note: Dionysos Melanaigis

“This cult was brought to Athens by Pegasos, a missionary. Offence caused impotence in men. Regarded as the seconded introduction to Athens.” “Axios Tauros” worthy bull. 173

Notes on: Myth of Arrival and Rite Outside of Attica: Thebes ad Delphi. A common theme in early myth is kings refusing to accept the “new” cult of Dionysos. Often the followers of Dionysos were beating, killed and in some instances Dionysos, himself, was beaten or slain. However, as a result of the king’s hubris, those that oppose Dionysos face his wraith:

A. King Lykourgos, the Thracian king that kills the nurses of Dionysos and beat the god to the sea (Homer) The king either goes insane or his own people kill him. B. The daughters of Minyas, they ignore and didn’t respect Dionysos when he arrived resulting in their madness. C. Perseus “killed” Dionysos when the god arrived at Argos, Perseus threw his body into lake Lerna. Dionysos was called back as Dionysos Bougenes (the cow’s son). Lake Lerna is one of the mythical entrances to hades and upon Dionysos’s return he reconciled with Perseus and “converted” him. Perseus established a temple to Dionysos and Ariadne in Argos as “Dionysos Kresios” the “Cretan Dionysos”. P180

The introduction to lake Lerna leads to Dionysos’s second decent to hades to retrieve the soul of his mother, Semele. Kerenyi claims that Dionysos sacrificed his masculinity here, as the price for his decent was the promise of sex with a man and “feminization” by the act. The result was a permeant phallic cult at the lake. Kerenyi continues that the Argos cult was an early precursor to the Theban cycle, with the original king in Argos being Megapentheus, son of Proitos, king of Argos. Like Pentheus of Thebes, Megapentheus name literally means “man of great suffering”, though the suffering of the king in the Argos cult was directed towards the king’s sisters. The sisters going mad doomed to wander the land in a state of nymphomania. P186

Discusses the unusual connection Dionysos has with Hera, as in archaic myths it is Hera that deals out madness. There is a mention that according to cult rules ivy was prohibited in Hera’s temples, with the exception of her mad cultic features. PP186-187

Dionysos Trieterikos God of the Two Year Period. “Dionysos Pelekys” Dionysos of the Double axe. 192

“Pentheus into the name of a punished enemy of the god, who nevertheless in his suffering remained so close to the god to represent him. The contradictory nature of the tragic fate of a god who suffers and lets himself be killed – a god whose servant, indeed he himself, was the sacrificial ox – was embodied in a man who destroyed himself, a frequent character in later Attic tragedy.” P193

The Maenadic state of mind is called “Mainomenos” – usually a negative Then “Thyiadic” and “Epiphoitian”, verb: “Thyein” P198

“Enthousiasmos” the state and act of being filled with god. P200

Details the two year festive cycle outside of Athens, the first year to the subterranean Dionysos, sombre and mellow period. The second year was more celebratory of life – though there were race instances of “human sacrifice”. Sources of this are dubious as they are mostly from Christian critics. PP202-203

“He who leads the throngs become Dionysos”. P203

This two-year festival was held in secret by woman from around Attika. Dated at roughly the 8th of November. They journeyed up the mountain to Delphi in dangerous conditions. What occurred during these rites is a mystery, though related to life, death, and rebirth. PP214-215

“Heroen Brephos” the Horned Infant. P249

“[…] when the vine has been heavily pruned after the win harvest, the earth restores it in order that it may bear fruit again in due season” “This is consonant with what is said in the Orphic poems and presented in the mysteries”. Diodorus Siculus III 6Z 7-8 P249

A Greek and Roman custom was observed throughout to an extent that it was a kind of law, called “Talion” for when goats were admitted to a vineyard they “sinned” against the vine. “ “So it came about,” says Marcus Terentius Varro, “that the he-goat were sacrificed to Dionysos, discoverer of the vine, as though to make atonement, a head for a head.”” “ “Very well, eat my fruit bearing vines: the roots will still bear enough wine to pour on you when you are scarified.”” Leonidas of Tarentum, an ancient proverb of the vine to the goat. P249

Mention of wine cults in the East:

  • Dolukbaba in Syria, holy mountain of Jupiter Dolichenus
  • Great Hittie god, grapes, related to Doliche
  • Dursares “The Arabian Bacchus”
  • Sumerians had a goddess called “Heavenly Vine”
  • Arabian Djinn “Umm Unkud: mother of grapes. P256

Basket that held Dionysos’ heart “Cista Mystica” (also see: “Liknon”

  • Note: continues connection between the heart and the phallus, “Kradiaios” P260

Orphism has been termed “Religious-Philosophical-Literary movement that cannot be defined with precision.” Kerenyi, W. Fauth. P262

The Dionysos of The Athenians and his worshipers in Greek Mysteries “Kradiaios Dionysos” Figwood Dionysos. The mask belongs only to him […], it is only seemingly empty. Behind it dwells a world of spirits, which sends its inhabitants out onto the Dionysian stage. Anthesteria.

  • Pithoigia. “Opening of Jars” It is somewhat unknown why the “Pithoi” jars were opened on this day, but Kerenyi says it was an ancient rite: “[…] in the Mycenaean texts of Pylos clay tablets. Here the souls of the dead are called dipsion, the “thirsty ones”. They were thirsty not for water but, in the year Dionysos dwelt emasculated among them, for wine.” “Attracted by the smell of the wine that rose from the opened pithoi and spread throughout the city, the souls emerged from the underworld. No one, not even slaves, was prevented from drinking wine on this day.” P303
  • Choës “From the wine pitchers” “When the world is open, it is as though the gates of sad subterranean gods were open.” “Choës day was marked by an erotic atmosphere and the presence of ghosts an unusual phenomenon but not humanly impossible.” P303-304

-Chytori “The day of pots” “was dedicated to Dionysos and Hermes […] wholly devoted to driving out and appeasing the spirits: the god who led them up from the underworld was supposed to lead them back down again.” “Out, you Keres, it is no longer Anthesteria!” “The pots, after which the day was named “Chytroi” contained food for the journey of the keres: cooked vegetables and seeds, a sacrifice to Hermes Cthonios and in Greece from time immemorial to the present, the food of the spirits of the dead.” “Their heads heavy with wine, the ghosts returned to the “swamps”, whiter the Athenians escorted them.” P304

In the Boukoleion only the “queen” and her handmaidens, the Gerarai, were permitted but only the queen could see and worship an archaic cult statue, an agalma. The event leading to this was a pompe, a marriage of sorts. During the parade a live male acted as Dionysos but during the Boukoleion ceremony the “consummation” was with the cult image.” 308-309

Symmeixis: “Physical union” but in a spiritual sense. Gamos : Bodily union a consummation matrimony/between god and woman. “According to Aristotle: the wife of the archon basileus entered into a higher marriage with Dionysos, made higher no doubt by the ineffable sacred ceremonies whereby she restored the god’s wholeness and created his full Parousia. It was her duty to do this each year.” P310

P310 – 311 Details that this act was performed by Dionysos himself in the myth of Prosymnos.

The sacrificial table was called “thymele” and also “éleos” the latter meaning pity. These platforms were of the first stages. P319

P320 Discusses the origin of the word “tragic” related to the irony of the goat dying to the object that sustained it.

P326 Mentions the first Dionysian Artist, linked with “Ikarian” performance and Thespis.

Thespis invented the stage and costume for performance, chalk faces to represent the dead characters in the plays. Canvas masks for the heroes. They wore wreaths of andrachne, knowns as “komaros” the strawberry tree, holy to Hermes. P327

“That you fart like a weasel” P338 (Markos note: I just found this hilarious)

By the classical period males could replace women in choruses but still wore women’s clothing, they were called “homoi”. P340

Comedies were chiefly performed by men only women were only props. Comedy was likely the first form of performance art, a drunken farce or open mockery of noble/public officials. However narrative comedy with a planned story was imported from Dorian Sicily after Athenian tragedy was firmly established. Ironically making the first and last artform of performance. P340

“Archiboukolos” Chief cowherder “Boukoloi” group of cows – cowherd – followers of Dionysos “Archimystes” chief initiate. “Boukoloi Hieroi” Holy Boukoloi “Heros” Priest, literal representative of Dionysos “Theos Dionysos” Literally god Dionysos, but may indicate the title to an actor playing as Dionysos, or it could indeed represent the god himself. 186BC is the date of the Roman Dionysian conspiracy – Livy, and ban of the Bacchanalia. “Monosandalos” to have only one shoe. P351

The ban against the Bacchanalia was lifted by Julius Caesar. P363

“To a divine encounter one is called seduced by a superior power. Where a living person is concerned; this person will achieve the Telos in a mystery ceremony through the gamos. Just this happens in the death of young people.” P369

Throughout Southern Italy the name “Ariadne” suggests itself for Dionysos’ divine partner, into whom the female deceased are transformed, while the males are transformed into Dionysos.” P369

“Both sexes achieve the same Dionysian apotheosis in death.” P370

“With such a conception of death the Dionysian religion of late antiquity diverted itself almost entirely of ethical philosophy of the Orphics. The terrors of death were overcome by the identification of the deceased man with Dionysos and by the belief that a deceased woman gave herself in love to the god.” P373

[Young Children] “If they died at this age went down to the underworld as little Dionyoi.” “They need no initiation other than a sip of wine -probably their first- from a small Chous. If they lived not much longer, was put into tomb with them as an identification.” (This explains the large number of children drinking vessels in museums.) P374

Diodorus Siculos wrote: He seems to be dual of form because there are two Dionysoi: the bearded Dionysos of the old times, since the ancients wore beards, and the younger, beautiful and exuberant Dionysos, a youth.” DS:IV52

A Discussion on Candles

Candles inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre CC Andrew Shiva / Wikipedia 

The use of candles dates back to prehistory, with some of the oldest examples found in Egyptian tombs. Candlesticks have also been discovered in Babylonian and Minoan cultures. Most early candles, however, were made from animal fat—known as tallow—which burned with a smoky flame and produced an unpleasant smell.

The ancient Greeks were particular about smell, cleanliness, and aesthetics—so they rarely used candles. Instead, their main sources of light were oil lamps and torches. Olive oil, a major commodity in Greece then and now, was a regular household item. It was used in everything from cooking and hygiene to lighting, making it an essential and widely available part of daily life.

It’s possible that some temples and wealthy households used beeswax candles, but beeswax was extremely expensive and primarily reserved for practical uses like the lost-wax process in bronze casting. As a result, using it for something as temporary as a light source was considered both impractical and costly.

In general, the Greeks rarely used candles. They were not part of religious rituals, and there was no such thing as “candle magic” in ancient Greek practice.

The Romans, in contrast to the Greeks, were pragmatic and used whatever materials were available for lighting. As they rose to power and began conquering Greek territories, we see a shift in the economy—tallow candles became more common, especially among the lower classes. Candle holders also appear more frequently in archaeological finds from the Roman period in Greece.

From that point through to the nineteenth century, tallow candles were widely used across most European cultures. They remained the primary source of lighting until the advent of gas and electricity, which began to replace them around the turn of the twentieth century.

Interestingly, the paraffin wax candles we use today were invented after the lightbulb. Paraffin is a byproduct of petroleum. While the wax itself naturally has no smell, burning it can release potentially harmful chemicals into the air. It is recommended to burn these candles in areas of good ventilation.

I bring this up because I often see people in Hellenic Polytheist communities recommending, or even insisting on, the use of candles for rituals and magic—despite these being entirely modern additions. I’m not here to dictate how anyone should worship or perform rituals; I fully support adaptation and the development of new practices.

My aim is simply to point out that the use of candles has little to no historical precedent in ancient Greek religion and is by no means a necessary part of worship.

Horns Magazine Issue #11

Horns Magazine is a gay-focused, LGBTQIA+ pagan/occult magazine. It features different voices from our various communities and includes beautiful homoerotic images (obviously NSFW and 18+).

I write for Horns Magazine, covering the history of LGBTQIA+ deities and spirits from ancient and contemporary paganism and other religions. In previous issues, I have written about Dionysus, Shiva, Santa Muerte, and Tu’er Shen.

In issue #11, the Summer Solstice Edition, I have written about the Gay God Antinous. The young lover of the Roman emperor Hadrian, who was turned into a god after his untimely death. Antinous became an enduring deity for several centuries after Hadrian’s death. Revived in the modern era as a gay icon.

Digital download of the magazine is available now, physical copies will be for sale in the near future.

Enjoy!

Offerings and Sacrifice

The Household Gods by John William Waterhouse (Public Domain)

Offerings and sacrifices are common across nearly all major religions, serving a similar function in Hellenic and Mediterranean traditions. At their core, they are gifts presented to the divine as acts of devotion—sometimes with the hope of a reciprocal response from the gods.

But what exactly are offerings, and why do we make them?

In Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth, Walter Burkert notes that sacrifices and offerings were shaped by specific circumstances and contextual needs. In ancient Greek religion, these acts formed the foundation of worship, often serving to acknowledge the gods’ benevolence. However, offerings could also be made for supplication—to seek forgiveness, ward off misfortune, or appeal for divine favour. Because of this, there is no single purpose for offerings; their significance depends on the context in which they are given.

*****

Sacrifice in History

Today, the word sacrifice carries strong connotations, often evoking images of blood rituals. However, at its core, sacrifice simply means to make something sacred. Any offering given to the gods is, by definition, a sacrifice—a gift that becomes holy through devotion.

There are many types of sacrifices in ancient Greek religion, each with its own purpose and ritual:

Animal Sacrifice – Often the most controversial form of offering. In antiquity, there was no industrial meat industry, refrigeration, or large-scale distribution. Animals were typically slaughtered and consumed immediately. The Greeks acknowledged the sacredness of life and often believed the sacrificial animal was temporarily inhabited by a god and had consented to its death. A ritual was performed in which barley was sprinkled on the animal’s head; when it bowed to eat, it was seen as giving its approval and was slaughtered. Specialist priests then carried out the butchering, ensuring the meat was safe for consumption and free of ill omens. The edible parts were distributed to the people or temple priests, while the bones and fat were burned as an offering to the gods. In some cases, the entire animal was burned in what was known as a holocaust, a sacrifice reserved for chthonic (underworld) deities, to whom it was considered dangerous or taboo to share an offering with the living.

First-Fruit Offerings (Aparchai) – Meaning “beginnings taken from the whole,” these were offerings of the first successful yield of food as an act of gratitude. This included the first grains or fruits of a harvest, the first catch of a hunt or fishing trip, and similar firsts in other activities. These offerings were either placed in sacred spaces, burned whole, buried, or submerged in water.

Votive Offerings (Anathemata) – Given in times of distress, as acts of supplication, or as part of fulfilling a vow. These could include physical objects such as sculptures, artwork, entire animals (holocaust sacrifices), or even the establishment of shrines and sanctuaries. War spoils were sometimes dedicated to the gods after victory. A subcategory, Ex-Voto offerings, included sculpted body parts representing ailments, such as carved feet or hands, symbolizing healing petitions.

An example of an ex-voto plaque from the Roman period, Cyprus. The supplicant possibly had issues with their foot and eyesight, and made this to ask for healing. (Public domain)

Libations – Liquid offerings were among the most common and varied in form. Sponde (wine/liquid offerings) were poured at the beginning of meals or sacrifices, while Choe (libations for the dead or underworld gods) included milk, honey, oil, or water poured onto graves. Olive oil was commonly offered in sanctuaries or used in purification rituals.

Food and General Offerings – Everyday items such as fruit, vegetables, honeycomb, oil, and wool were offered regularly. Some were scraps or excess household goods, while others were complete and intentional gifts. During certain festivals, special food offerings were made to honour the dead and supplication, such as a pottage of grain, beans, and seeds mixed with water, honey and salt.

Foundation Offerings (Hidryein) – When constructing a building, temple, or home, a ritual offering was made to consecrate the foundation. This often involved burying precious heirlooms, statuettes, or ceremonial pots, sometimes accompanied by animal sacrifice. This practice reflected a form of “magical thinking,” intended to bless and protect the structure.

Substitute Offerings – Not everyone could afford grand sacrifices. Instead, people offered small votive objects, usually made of clay or metal, representing animals such as cows, goats, pigs, or chickens. These miniature substitutes were donated to temples, buried, or thrown into wells, and are now among the most common artifacts found in museum collections.

Incense Offerings – Resins such as frankincense, valued as highly as gold in antiquity, were considered luxurious offerings. However, a variety of aromatic herbs and resins were burned to honour the gods, as their rising smoke was believed to carry prayers to the heavens. Perfume and essential oils were also used.

Dedications and Acts – Ancient poets often began their works with prayers to the Muses, dedicating their creative efforts to divine inspiration. This extended beyond poetry to include various human activities—sports, education, competitions, and labour—demonstrating that actions themselves could serve as offerings.

Initiation and Coming-of-Age Offerings – During significant life transitions, individuals would offer symbols of their past selves to the gods. Parents dedicated an infant’s first lock of hair, youths left behind their childhood toys and charms, and young men sacrificed their first beard hair. These acts marked the passage into a new stage of life.

Funeral Offerings – Often drinking cups, pottery, food and drink offerings. These were dedicated to the deceased and accompanied them in their burial or interment of ashes. This included individualised offerings or objects that the person preferred in life. Grave monuments can also be included, some people commissioned statues for grave sites. While other funeral objects include totenpass written instructions on how to navigate the afterlife. Coins are sometimes found in grave finds, but the supposed tradition of Charon’s obol was not as common as some may believe today.

A Life Dedicated to the Gods – In ancient inscriptions, like gravestone epigraphs, people often declared their lives as offerings to the gods. A lifelong devotion to a deity, sometimes through formal initiation into a religious cult. Such commitments were considered sacred acts of dedication.

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Sacrifice in Modernity

Having been part of the modern Hellenic Polytheist community for years, I’ve seen that many people struggle with the concept of sacrifice and offerings. This is understandable, as these practices can feel unfamiliar compared to other religious traditions. Additionally, there is no strict orthodoxy or universal liturgy dictating how offerings should be made. While this lack of centralised authority can create uncertainty, it also allows for flexibility, creativity, and personal adaptation.

Below, I address some common concerns and questions about offerings in modern Hellenic Polytheistic practice.

1. Animal Sacrifice

If someone has the ethical freedom, skills, and resources to perform animal sacrifice, I believe it is entirely acceptable. Some modern practitioners who own small farms follow traditional methods, similar to those used in antiquity. However, as historical precedent shows, substituting animal sacrifice with other offerings is equally valid.

If you are uncomfortable with consuming or harming animals, that is also a legitimate choice—vegetarianism was practiced in certain ancient Hellenic and Mediterranean religious sects/cults. However, it is important to respect those who believe that honouring the animal they consume is a legitimate form of devotion. Animal sacrifice, when performed correctly, is not an act of cruelty but a way to give thanks for life and respect to the animal.

2. How Should I Dispose of Food Offerings?

Ideally, food offerings should be disposed of in an environmentally responsible way. If your area has a composting program, this is a great option. However, if you live in an urban environment without composting access, placing food in the garbage (preferably unsealed to reduce CO2 emissions) is fine. Some foods may also be safely buried outdoors, though be mindful of wildlife that may be harmed by human food.

Importantly, food offerings are not mandatory. You can substitute them with other forms of devotion if needed.

3. How Should I Dispose of Liquid Offerings?

The best method, as in antiquity, is to pour liquid offerings onto the ground. If that’s not possible, an outdoor plant or even a potted plant indoors can serve as a substitute. If no other options are available, pouring non-oil-based liquids down the sink is acceptable, as they will eventually return to the earth through water treatment processes.

Never pour oil down a sink; it can clog pipes and harm the environment. If you cannot safely dispose of oil offerings, avoid making them.

4. Isn’t This Wasting Food?

As discussed earlier, many ancient food offerings were made from leftovers, such as fruit peels, bones, or food scraps. Whole offerings of animals or first harvests were typically reserved for major state-sponsored religious events.

If you have ethical concerns about food waste, consider alternative offerings, such as donating food or volunteering at food banks and shelters. Remember that acts of service can also be a form of offering.

5. Is Fire Required to Dispose of Offerings?

No. While ancient Greeks often burned offerings due to the presence of hearths and open flames in daily life, fire is not essential. Offerings can be disposed of in other ways, as outlined above.

6. Can I Eat the Offerings?

If you present food as an offering, you should not eat it afterward. An offering is a sacrifice, meaning you have freely given it to the gods. Taking it back is akin to giving someone a gift and then reclaiming it for yourself.

However, you can share a meal with the gods by consuming most of it yourself while leaving a small portion as an offering. This approach has historical precedent but remains a topic of debate within the community. If you choose to eat offerings, that is your personal decision.

7. How Long Should an Offering Be Left Out?

In antiquity, food offerings were typically disposed of immediately—thrown into the hearth, buried, or left for nature. Only in temples and shrines were offerings left out for longer periods, and even then, priests eventually removed them.

Food offerings should not be left out on an indoor altar/shrine for more than 24 hours. Allowing food or drink to rot on a shrine or altar is not appropriate, it’s unhygienic, and encourages vermin.

8. What If I Can’t Have an Open Flame Where I Live?

Many modern living spaces, such as apartments, dorms, and shelters, prohibit open flames, making it difficult to burn incense or candles. Fire offerings are not required; you can use alternatives such as reed diffusers, steam diffusers, or essential oils. You can also use electronic candles or just a light source.

Additionally, while oil lamps and hearths were commonly used in ancient Greece, candles were not exactly a traditional part of Hellenic religious practice—they are a modern addition.

9. Do I Need to Give Daily Offerings?

This is a personal decision. Some people enjoy the routine of daily offerings, while others prefer weekly or seasonal devotions.

Personally, I dedicate much of my time to educating and writing in honour of the gods, which I find more meaningful than performing small daily rituals. I strive to keep the gods in my thoughts at all times and dedicate my actions to them. Others may prefer a more structured practice, and that is completely valid. The goal is to cultivate a connection with the gods in a way that is meaningful to you.

10. Will I Offend the Gods with Certain Offerings?

I will discuss this further in the next section, but in general, it is extremely difficult to offend the gods with an offering. The gods are not petty beings waiting to take offense at small missteps. Most deities will accept a wide variety of offerings, including “new world” foods such as chocolate, coffee, tea, alternative alcohol like gin, rum etc., and soft drinks (soda/coke). If it is something that humans can consume and enjoy, it is generally acceptable as an offering.

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Taboos in Offerings

There are specific myths in which gods rejected certain offerings from humans. Generally, this relates to anything considered Miasmic (impure), which usually includes things associated with human mortality.

As a rule of thumb, human remains, blood, bodily fluids, and waste should not be given as offerings. I won’t go into the deeper theological reasons here (that would require an entirely separate article), but suffice it to say that our mortality stands in stark contrast to the nature of the immortals.

That said, there are rare circumstances in which human-related offerings may be acceptable. These situations typically involve highly specialised ritual work—such as certain sexual rites or necromantic practices—and should only be performed by experienced ritual specialists who truly understand what they are doing.

For most practitioners, it’s best to keep things simple and stick to the offerings outlined earlier. When in doubt, err on the side of caution. “Don’t fuck around and find out”.

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Cult-Dependent Taboos

Years ago, I remember an online dispute where someone offered jellybeans to Aphrodite. If you’re unaware, most jellybeans contain gelatine, which comes from animal collagen—often from pigs. The controversy arose because some cults of Aphrodite prohibited pork as an offering, due to the myth in which a boar killed her lover, Adonis. This led to the modern online belief that all pork-related products are unacceptable offerings to her.

However, after deeper research, I found that this is an oversimplification. While some cults did prohibit pork offerings to Aphrodite, others—especially in Cyprus—actually encouraged them.

Each temple, cult, and worshiper had their own set of restrictions regarding offerings, often inscribed in stone outside the temple. These conditions were meant to maintain ritual purity for temple entry and participation in specific rites. Unfortunately, in modern discussions, people sometimes take these ancient temple-specific rules and apply them as universal taboos for all worshippers, which isn’t necessarily accurate.

That said, certain offerings were considered unacceptable in specific cult settings. Some examples include:

Ivy was generally prohibited in temples of Hera, as it is sacred to Dionysos.

Pork was an uncommon offering to Aphrodite in some regions.

Mint was forbidden in temples of Persephone, as it is linked to an extramarital lover of Hades—though it is possible it was used during the Eleusinian Mysteries.

Onions and garlic were often prohibited in temples of Demeter and other gods.

Fava beans were avoided in temples, as some cults believed they contained human souls.

It’s important to note that these prohibitions were cult-dependent and usually tied to the specific customs of a temple, not general worship. Offerings that were restricted in a temple setting might still be perfectly acceptable during festivals or household rites.

So, if you want to give jellybeans to Aphrodite, go ahead!

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Final Words

When I set out to write this article, I thought it would be a straightforward topic—simple, even. But as I explored the depth and variety of offerings in ancient Hellenic and Mediterranean religions, I quickly realised just how complex and nuanced this practice truly is. Offerings and sacrifices were deeply ingrained in daily life, but they were not rigid, burdensome, or uniform across all situations. Instead, they adapted to context, necessity, and individual means.

One of the most important takeaways is that offering to the gods does not need to be elaborate, excessive, or expensive. The ancient Greeks recognised this too; while grand festivals and large sacrifices were significant communal events, household worship often consisted of small, simple acts—clean water, a crumb of bread, a splash of wine. Intent and devotion mattered far more than scale or luxury.

If you are new to Hellenic Polytheism and feel uncertain about offerings, it is absolutely fine to start simple. A small token of gratitude—a piece of fruit, a libation, or even a few kind words spoken out loud—is more than enough. If physical offerings feel impractical or uncomfortable, remember that devotion is not limited to tangible gifts. Poetry, sports, music, storytelling, art, dance—these too can be sacred acts of offering. Even the way you live your life, the care you show to others, and the passions you pursue can all be dedicated to the gods.

Ultimately, what matters most is your connection with the divine and the personal meaning you find in your acts of devotion. Worship should never feel like an obligation or a strict set of rules to follow. Instead, it should be a meaningful practice that enhances your spiritual life and deepens your relationship with the gods.

So, whether you offer a grand feast at a festival or a simple breath of gratitude in the morning, remember that the gods are not demanding—they are present, listening, and receptive to all offerings.

The Dionysian Artists (Dionysiakoi Tekhnitaior Dionuson Technitaii)

Foreword: I wrote this for the Dionysus in History course, taught at NoDE, with Fabianzzz as the teacher.

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Priest of Bacchus & attendant from An illustration of the Egyptian, Grecian and Roman costumes by Thomas Baxter (1782-1821). CC-Attribution: Rawpixel.

The Dionysian Artists was a religious guild that managed the theatrical industry and can be considered the first professional association in antiquity. Likely originating in the Classical era, they rose to prominence during the Hellenistic period, becoming a powerful international organisation with privileges such as free travel and political immunity. The guild’s history is fragmented, primarily documented through diplomatic relations, bureaucratic records, and monuments. Due to the scattered nature of these sources, the Dionysian Artists have often been overlooked by historians. This essay is dedicated to the Artists.

The origins of Greek theatre are disputed, it probably began through oral performance of Homer’s epics, with the addition of instrumental music and ancient pantomime — performing dance used to act out scenes. (1)(2) Anthesteria is the oldest Dionysian festival in Athens, which included early performance, but the festival that had theatre at its heart was the “City Dionysia” established in the sixth century BCE. (3) The actor credited with inventing tragedy is Thespis, when he won the first dramatic competition during the City Dionysia in 532 BCE. (4) Thespis became a legendary figure and served as an “archon”, or leader, of performance in Attica. (5)  From there on professional actors, poets and playwrights would be awarded special prizes and titles for winning the dramatic (and later comedic) competitions during the Dionysia and Lenaia. Their names were recorded on monuments with the grand winner titled archon and didaskalos, which is translated to a teacher, but was a director role. (6) These archons would govern over the next year’s competitions.

Few examples of written evidence on stone from the classical era survive, particularly concerning the Dionysian Artists. However, the professional hierarchical structure of organising and managing the theatrical industry is evident in “credit reels” recorded on marble. (7) From the classical era onward, artists were responsible for theatrical performance festivals dedicated to Dionysos. These performers would travel abroad to perform throughout Greece. (8) There was a dilemma with travelling in antiquity, it was risky and expensive, and artists had to be granted individual permission to enter foreign city-states. (9)

By the early third century BCE these Artists appear to be a formal organisation. The first recorded mention of the Artists is from a decree in 279 BCE granting the Artists the right to sit on the ‘throne’ and front seats of the theatre without consultation from the oracle. (10)

The second mention is the impressive Delphi Decree, written the following year, outlining the importance of The Dionysian Artists. The 278 BCE Delphi Decree, which was ordered by the Amphictyons (The Amphictyonic league, a religious authority), declared that The Dionysian Artists were to be free from seizure, taxation, imprisonment (in war and peace), tariffs, fees, conscription and contractual obligations throughout all of Greece. This effectively granted political immunity and absolute freedom of travel, even in wartime. An interesting note of the decree is mention that the artists are apolitical (apolypragmoneton) and consecrated to the service of the gods, indicating a class of priesthood and statelessness (or a state of their own). The leaders of the artists were Artydamas, poet of tragedies, Neoptolemos, tragic actor – both considered the most famous tragedians at the time. (11)

The Amphictyonic League continued to make similar decrees regarding the Artists, granting them further privileges. As a result of this power and freedom of travel, they became ambassadors and diplomats. When Phillip II of Macedon began his conquest against Greece the Artists were utilised, Aeschines, an actor and orator attempted to negotiate an Athenian surrender to Macedon, which caused considerable controversy, recorded in a speech by Demosthenes “On The False Embassy”. (12) Neoptolemus, apparently the same actor from the Delphic Decree, also performed for Phillip II the night before the king’s assassination. This performance was later considered an ill omen. (13)

Under the reign of Alexander and later, after his death, the reign of the Hellenic kings, the Artists continued to flourish as a loose collective of associations or independent branches that governed the theatre in a number of cities, including Athens, Delphi, Argos, Thebes, Teos, Pergamon, Syracuse, Rhodes and regions such as Egypt and Cypress. (14) (15) At times the guilds were not congenial with one another and came into conflict over fees and taxes as their regions overlapped. (16)(17)

The guilds maintained a close connection with political leaders and royalty. Winners of performance were awarded a crown and allowed to wear royal colours, they were also awarded lifetime state-funded pensions. (18) The highest-ranking Artists were members of the royal court, often housed in the palace. In Ptolemaic Egypt the Artists were employed for propaganda, to rejoice in the legitimacy of the king, (the kings would title themselves “Neos Dionysos”) as seen in an Honorary Decree from Egypt, 240 BCE, where the Ptolemaic royal family is considered equal to the Artists of Dionysos. (19)

In the second and first centuries BCE, the Roman Republic expanded its territory by conquering Greek lands. The Artists continued under Roman rule, but state sponsorship seemed limited. Records indicate that guilds relied on performance fees and taxes to raise funds. (20) Culturally Romans regarded actors as infami (not a reputable profession), this may indicate the reason for the lack of sponsorship. (21) At some point during the Republic regime, it appears that the guilds were consolidated as official organisations under Roman bureaucracy. (22) By the Imperial period, 131-161 CE, the guild came under the direct control of the Emperor of Rome, with the emperor titling himself the “New Dionysos” and thus the head of the organisation. (23) Records of the Artists exist into the third century CE (24), but there is a notable decline in further information thereon. Theatres were officially closed in the sixth century CE by Christian Roman emperors.

Academics (J.R. Green) have noted that the subject of the Dionysian Artists has been neglected, almost ignored by modern historians, this is due to the evidence of these professional associations being scattered and almost entirely confined to marble monumental inscriptions, (some of which were repurposed as building materials). It can be a challenge to study. It is with the best intentions that this brief essay has fulfilled its role in highlighting the significance of the Dionysian Artists.

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Sources:

1: Aristotle, Poetics, Translated by S. H. Butcher Written 350 BCE

2: Jane Ellen Harrison, Ancient Art and Ritual, 1913

3: Richard Seaford, Dionysos, Page 87, 2006

4: Horace, Ars Poetica 275-7 Translated by A. S. Kline, 19 BCE

5: Aristotle, Poetics Translated by S. H. Butcher Written 350 BCE

6: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 41, 1994

7: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 42, 1994

8: Bram Fauconnier, Athletes and artists in the Roman Empire: the history and organisation of the ecumenical synods. 2023

9: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 46, 1994

10: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 243, 1994

11: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 244, 1994

12: David Phillip, Athenian Political Oratory Sixteen Key Speeches, Page 69, 2004

13: Diodorus Siculus,Library of History: on the Assassination of Philip II, 16.92, 1st century BCE https://www.johndclare.net/AncientHistory/Alexander_Sources2.html

14: Brigitte Le Guen, Les associations de Technites dionysiaques à l’époque hellénistique. 1: Corpus documentaire, 2001
An English summary can be read here: https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1161-9473_2001_num_11_2_1971  by J.R. Green

15: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, 1994
(Note: This book provides location information in the numerous translations of monuments)

16: Bram Fauconnier Athletes and artists in the Roman Empire: the history and organisation of the ecumenical synods, Page 21, 2023

17: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 252, 1994

18: Inscription of “Honours for a son of Onoma-“ Translation by: Stephen Lambert, 2012 https://www.atticinscriptions.com/inscription/IGII31/344

19: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, Page 247, 1994

20: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 252, 1994 (Note: The inscription is a dispute between the guild’s right to collect fees, with Roman authorities forced to intervene.)

21: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 275, 1994

22: Bram Fauconnier Athletes and artists in the Roman Empire: the history and organisation of the ecumenical synods, Page 37-41, 2023

23: Decree of ecumenical technitai of Dionysos, Trustees of the British Museum,
Translation by: Stephen Lambert, 2020
https://www.atticinscriptions.com/inscription/AIUK43A/9

24: Eric Csapo, William J. Slater, The Context of Ancient Drama, page 255, 1994

The 278 BC Delphi Degree, trans. Eric Csapo, William J. Slater (1994):
It was decided by the Amphictyons and the hieromnemones and the agoratroi: In order for all time the technitai in Athens may have freedom from seizure (asylia) and from taxation, and that no one may be apprehended from anywhere in war or in peace or their goods seized, but that they may have freedom from taxation and immunity accorded to them surely by all of Greece, the technitai are to be free of taxes for military service on land or sea and all special levies, so that honours and sacrifices for which the technitai are appointed may be performed for the gods at appropriate times, seeing that they are apolitical (apolypragmoneton) and consecrated to the services of the gods: let it be permitted to no one to make off with the technitai either in war or in peace or to take reprisals against them, provided that they have contracted no debt with the city as debtors, or are under no obligation for a private contract. If anyone acts contrary to this, let him be liable before the Amphictyons, both he himself and the city in which the offence was committed against the technitai. The freedom from taxation and security that has been granted by the Amphictyons is to belong for all time to the technitai at Athens, who are apolitical. The secretaries are to inscribe this decree on a stone slab and set it up in Delphi, and to send to the Athenians a sealed copy of this decree, so that the technitai may know that the Amphictyons have the greatest respect for their piety towards the gods and adhering to the requests of the technitai and shall try also for the future to safeguard this for all time and in addition to increase any other privilege they have on behalf of the Artists of Dionysus. Ambassadors: Artydamas, poet of tragedies, Neoptolemos, tragic actor.

Dionysos and Hephaestus: The Rise of the Working Class

Foreword: This project was written for the Dionysus Mythology Course, taught at NoDE, with Fabianzzz as the teacher. I would like to flesh out this discussion more in the future and include citations.

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Dionysos and Hephaestus: The Rise of the Working Class
The mythic ascension of both Dionysos and Hephaestus to Olympus, and how alcohol tapers the anger of the worker’s revolution and births democracy.

In the 12th century BCE, the highly advanced late Bronze Age civilisations around the Aegean collapsed into a dark age. International trade ceased, empires fell, and history was lost. We don’t know the cause of this collapse but what resulted was the upheaval of the social structures of the Bronze Age. What was once numerous citadels controlled by warlords was laid waste to a diaspora of simple people. From the literal ashes of empires, a new structure of civilisation began to flourish, Democracy. Not kings, or tyrants, but average citizens, including the working class, were given the power to rule.

During the slow formation of the Classical Era after the Dark Age, myths began to be recorded of a lame, crippled, physically disabled god being born by the rulers of Olympus, Hephaestus. His deformity or ugliness was unfitting for the lofty clouds of heaven, and he was discarded by the gods. Falling to earth a reject. This grounding was formative for Hephaestus as necessity required him to be inventive, crafting a wheelchair and learning the art of metallurgy. As he advanced in his skill, he devised a plan to seek revenge on his parents, a gift. One of many gifts of Hephaestus that was cursed. This gift was a golden throne for his mother, Hera, its splendour, and beauty was such that it was irresistible. When the crafts god presented the throne to her, she did exactly what he expected her to do, sit upon it…and when she did Hera found herself stuck.

All the gods tried to remove her from her seat, but no power in the cosmos could lift Hera from her throne except Hephaestus, who refused to do so.  

Elsewhere on earth was a wandering god, a god of wine, passion, and freedom, Dionysos. This god once driven mad by Hera and cursed to travel forever to avoid her wrath, heard the story of his stepmother being trapped. One can assume that Dionysos delighted in her fate, but we also know he saw it as an opportunity to cease his wandering. Dionysos met with Hephaestus at his forge and introduced him to his sacred liquid, wine. Hephaestus experienced joy, happiness, and slow stupor as he drank the juice of Ampelos, and Dionysos took the opportunity to prop the drunken cripple on an ass and take him to Olympus. It was here, in front of all the heavenly gods – including the distressed Hera – that the god of liberty made his offer for the queen’s freedom. Accept both himself and Hephaestus into Olympus or be forever trapped.

Hera could not refuse, and Dionysos convinced Hephaestus to free her. Thus, the two gods elevated to the heights of heaven.

Dionysos (centre) bringing Hephaestus (left) to Hera (right)
Copyright theoi.com
Attic red-figure pelike, 440–430 BC

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This myth, like all Greek myths, has variations and different outcomes, though typically Hephaestus is married to Aphrodite and Dionysos becomes the life of the party on Olympus. Though what can it tell us of the social changes in history and why is it necessary for a craft god and wine god to enter the rulering sphere of Olympus?

It is a fact that ancient cultures depended on slavery to progress in development but in the previous century archaeological discoveries in Egypt have determined that the dependence of slavery was not as widespread as mentioned in Biblical telling. The quality of the lifestyle of the Pyramid labourers indicates that these monuments were not entirely built by slaves, but rather by free workers, citizens of Egypt. They were granted lodging, food and beer in wages and even had a system of free healthcare and funeral rites. Later in Athens, workers took great pride in their craft to the point it became a defining feature of their cultural ethos. The Greeks were amongst the first individual artists to sign off on their work. Pottery often features “I was painted by (artist name)”. This elevated craftsmen to positions of status in both social situations, and in terms of celebrity fame. Individual artists were commissioned by kings and political leaders, often becoming advisers, and friends to the ruling elite and even living in palaces. The Greeks saw the labourer as something more than a lowly peasant, underserving of the presence of the king, to a high-ranking member of the court/democratic council of leaders.

It is in the myth of Hephaestus that we see this change of social status develop, as the greatest of craftsmen, the god of craft becomes an Olympian. But what of Dionysos? What’s his role in this myth?

 “Wine cheers the sad, revives the old, inspires the young, makes weariness forget his toil.” Lord Byron.

Already mentioned was that the Egyptians used alcohol as a commodity, but in Greece, wine was given to all. On Dionysian holidays wine was freely distributed even amongst slaves and prisoners, wine and mead being the choice drink of the working class. It enabled them to be free from the stress, pain, and displeasure of labour. It also gave the people a form of expression. As Kerenyi mentions comedy was likely the first form of performance art, a drunken farce or open mockery of noble/public officials. Wine empowered the working class to not just mock the elite, but to stand up against them. Wine, the passionate equaliser, has spurred many a revolution…but also it has quelled them, as with the Hephaestus myth, wine is used to subdue the working class and to prevent revolt.

In later times, in Rome, the link between the working class and Dionysos and Hephaestus continued. Hephaestus’ Roman equivalent Vulcan had twins called the Palici, (Palikoi), the cult of the Palikos was one of the only examples of an emancipation cult, dedicated to freeing slaves and giving refuge to those who escaped their masters. Meanwhile, Liber (Dionysos) was called upon by the Proletariat and often associated with the legal freeing of slaves.  

So, if we look at this interpretation of Hephaestus’ myth, he can be seen as the working class revolting against the ruling elite, rising against to it to the point they are immobilised in their place of status, but unable to rule. We see this in revolutions, like the French, where women’s marches essentially besieged and imprisoned the Royal family and aristocracy in the Palace of Versailles. Hephaestus does the same to Hera. Dionysos acts as the negotiator but at the same time, he demands equal rights to the elite (Olympians), thus establishing Democracy, equality and labour rights.

Horns Magazine Issue #10

Horns Magazine is a gay-focused, LGBTQIA+ pagan/occult magazine. It features different voices from our various communities and includes beautiful homoerotic images (obviously NSFW and 18+).

I write for Horns Magazine, covering the history of LGBTQIA+ deities and spirits from ancient and contemporary paganism and other religions. In previous issues I have written about Dionysus, Shiva and Santa Muerte.

In Issue #10 I have written about the Gay Rabbit god, Tu’er Shen from China and Taiwan.  

The issue has been published digitally but will be available for physical print in the near future.

I hope you enjoy!

Link to Issue #10

“Tantric” Dualism of Dionysus and Ariadne?

 Foreword: This project was written for the Dionysus Philosophy Course taught at NoDE, with Fabianzzz as the teacher. The intention is to explore philosophical concepts from elsewhere and see how they compare with Dionysian philosophy.

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Comparative mythology reveals striking parallels between Shiva and Dionysus. Both are portrayed as outsiders, wanderers, and phallic deities that defy social norms and expectations. (1) Each governs the realms of life and death, serving as a cosmic force underlying all aspects of existence. In Tantric Shaivism, a particular philosophy of dualism emerges, categorised by gender as feminine and masculine—known as Shiv-Shakti, or Ardhanarishvara. (2) Shiva represents the masculine: the external, immaterial, and abstract consciousness, the essence of divinity. Meanwhile, his consort Shakti embodies the material force that brings abstraction into reality, she is the energy and matter of all. Shiva symbolises destruction and the impermanence of all things, while Shakti is the creative force that manifests material existence. Separately, these forces are inert, lifeless. Together, in union, they form the cosmos. (3)

While the duality of Dionysus and Ariadne is less apparent in antiquity, we do see Dionysus as a philosophical god and a soul saviour, these ideas were present in the early classical but became more prominent in the latter period of antiquity especially amongst Neoplatonists. More importantly for this project is pointing out that Dionysus is represented as a cosmic force, Zoe, eternal life. Zoe is the pervading essence of all life, Anima Mundi – the world soul. This is in opposition to Bios, mortal or rotting life. (4)

The aim of this project is to explore these concepts and highlight the similarities between Shiv-Shakti and Dionysus-Ariadne and the possibility of dualism in Dionysism by comparing these ideas and myths.

Mythology: Shiva falling in love with Parvati

Shiva’s first wife was Sati, a form of Shakti. On their wedding night, Sati’s parents insulted Shiva, and in protest, she set herself on fire, perishing in the flames. Grief-stricken, Shiva retreated into solitude, withdrawing to Mount Kailash, where he remained in deep meditation. Neglecting his duties as the destroyer, he caused the universe to stagnate, and deathless demons threatened the heavens.

Noticing the imbalance, Brahma turned to Shakti for help. She took the form of Parvati, intending to marry Shiva and restore cosmic order. Reborn as the mortal child of the Himalayan gods, her name means “of the mountains.” Raised in a palace by loving and protective parents, Parvati grew up surrounded by beauty and privilege. Yet, during her travels through the Himalayas, she encountered Shiva in meditation and became captivated by him. Despite her attempts, she could not stir his attention. Determined, she chose a path of devotion, dedicating herself to him through strict penance and servitude.

As Parvati deepened her spiritual practice, her radiance spread throughout the cosmos. The gods, recognising her devotion, sent Kama, the god of love and pleasure, to break Shiva’s meditation. While Parvati attended him, Kama shot his arrow, successfully awakening desire in Shiva. However, realising the deception, Shiva opened his third eye, utterly destroying Kama and erasing all love and desire from the universe.

With her hopes of marriage seemingly lost, Parvati did not waver. Instead of seeking to rouse Shiva, she intensified her ascetic practices, undertaking even harsher penance for thousands of years. Through this, she gradually attained spiritual enlightenment equal to Shiva’s own. Her presence became undeniable, even to Shiva himself. Drawn by her power and devotion, he finally emerged from his meditation and sought her out—falling in love at last.

With Kama restored, Shiva and Parvati consummated their union, realigning the cosmos and manifesting as Ardhanarishvara—the supreme, unified being. A divine embodiment of destruction and creation, they exist eternally in perfect balance. (5)

Ardhanarishvara (अर्धनारीश्वर): Shiva is represented pale skin (their right), Shakti green skin (their left).
Copyrighted to Himalayan Academy Publications, Kapaa, Kauai, Hawaii. (CC-attribution) 

The myth of Dionysus and Ariadne

Ariadne was born the princess of Crete, daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë (a sorceress), sister of the Minotaur.
The hero and future king of Athens, Theseus, embarks on a quest to end the cruel tribute Athens must pay to Crete every seven years—a sacrifice of human lives to the Minotaur, imprisoned within the labyrinth. Disguising himself among the sacrificial victims, he infiltrates the city of Knossos. There, Princess Ariadne sees him and falls in love. Moved by her feelings, she agrees to help him. She provides Theseus with a sword to slay the Minotaur and a ball of thread to navigate the labyrinth’s twisting passages. With her aid, he succeeds in his mission, and together, they flee Crete by ship.
There are different variations to this myth, but for whatever reason, Theseus abandons Ariadne on the uninhabited island of Naxos. She awakens alone and betrayed, completely hopeless. The wild wandering god Dionysus discovers the distressed Ariadne, he declares his love for her and marries her. Ariadne eventually dies (there are many versions of her death, some quite gruesome). However, Dionysus elevates Ariadne to godhood, dedicating the constellation Corona Borealis (the crown) to her. The two gods become the ultimate divine couple.

Ariadne is probably an old pre-Hellenic goddess, she is attributed as the “Mistress of the Labyrinth” in Linear B. (6) Late 19th and early 20th century scholars speculate that she is the goddess of mountains and caves. (7) Romans identified her with the goddess Libera, the wife of Liber (gods of liberty), Libera is also associated with Persephone. In Cyprus, Ariadne was worshipped as Ariadne-Aphrodite. The labyrinth itself can be seen as a kind of katabasis, a descent into the afterlife. So, Ariadne acts as a guide between life, death and renewal as she holds the thread that leads Theseus back out of the labyrinth.

A larger problem between Hindu and Hellenic myths is that Hindu myths are recorded as scripture and have few variations in the narrative. Whereas Greek mythology is recorded and retold by countless sources. That said, there is a similarity between the myths, the main one being that the future bride of both gods willingly relinquish their worldly possessions and are forced to retreat into the wilds out of love. In the case of Parvati, she gives up her life in a palace to devote herself to Shiva. With regards to Ariadne, she betrays her family and flees her luxurious life to be with the one she thinks she loves, an interpretation of her abandonment is that she is truly free when she has lost everything, and only after experiencing that loss, does Dionysus liberate her. (8)

Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian (Public Domain)

Tantric Dualism

I have already mentioned the roles that Shiva-Shakti play in Tantric philosophy, but the core of Tantric Dualism is recognising that these gods preside within us, just as all other things in the universe. These two opposing forces that complement each other exist in all matter, but for humans, it is possible that our ego can be unbalanced by one of these forces. Tantric Gurus and yogi seek to find a balance between these forces, they are to be harmonised. If a person can reach such states of harmony, they can circumvent the cycle of rebirth and be one with the cosmos. This is known as Enlightenment or reaching Nirvana.  

Dionysian Dualism

Dionysian Dualism is far less refined than Tantric, the concept was a later addition to Hellenic philosophy and did not fully develop before the rise and spread of Christianity, but it was present in beliefs in Hellenic nations of southern Italy and the Neoplatonist schools in Egypt and Greece.  

In southern Italy, they had a belief that men were Dionysus and women were Ariadne. If a person had undergone Mystery initiation the soul would ascend in union with one of these couple and become unionised as a whole and circumvent the bleakness of Hades or the cycle of rebirth.

Carl Keneryi detailed this in his book, Dionysos: Archetypical Image of Indestructible Life:
“Throughout Southern Italy the name “Ariadne” suggests itself for Dionysos’ divine partner, into whom the female deceased are transformed, while the males are transformed into Dionysos.” […] “Both sexes achieve the same Dionysian apotheosis in death.”
[…]“With such a conception of death the Dionysian religion of late antiquity diverted itself almost entirely of ethical philosophy of the Orphics. The terrors of death were overcome by the identification of the deceased man with Dionysos and by the belief that a deceased woman gave herself in love to the god.” (9)

In the third to fourth century CE, the Dionysian cult became a direct rival to the development of Christianity, which is most evident in funeral monuments and inscriptions of that period, often reserved for higher and educated classes in society. This is where we see elaborate sarcophagi, illustrating Dionysus and Ariadne, this corresponds with Kerenyi’s description. Also, in addition to this is writing detailing the elevation of the deceased to godhood. (10)

Sarcophagus featuring Dionysus and Ariadne and various seasons and nature spirits, 190-200 CE.
(The Walters Art Museum CC)

It is through the Neoplatonists that they began to view Dionysus as the “intellect of Zeus” (Dios Nous) and the Soul of the World. At this time there was a new form of henotheism, where Dionysus acts as a main god syncretizing with Apollo, Hades, Helios and Zeus (11). Dionysus becomes the link between life, death and intellect. If we extend this idea to Ariadne she plays a similar role as the divine feminine as Ariadne-Persephone-Aphrodite. Unfortunately, this is not mentioned by ancient sources instead Neoplatonists focused on the myth of Zagreus. A story where Dionysus-Zagreus is born from Zeus and Persephone, a new supreme god to control the cosmos. The jealous Hera conspired against this new god-child and released the Titans upon him, they tried to entice Zagreus with children’s toys, but it was the mirror that truly captured his attention, his own reflection. The Titans pounced upon the child and tore him apart, eating him. Zeus discovering this atrocity destroyed the Titans with his lightning bolt, and from the ashes arose humanity. (12) Here we see an essence of dualism, as under the beliefs of Neoplatonism, human beings have both the divine, ever living, Zoe of Dionysus and the corrupt, brutal Bios force of the Titans. The Titanic forces represent destruction and chaos, while the Dionysian is symbolic of the divine, creation and order.

“The myth was used not only as a symbolic narrative of the fate of the soul, but also as a metaphysical allegory of the transition between unity and multiplicity, the intelligible and the sensible world, the in divisible and the divisible, reality and its reflection”
-David Hernández de la Fuente (13)

It is also through the mirror metaphor that the Neoplatonists explore dualism and multiplicity, Macrobius alludes to the mirror in myths (Zagreus and Narcissus), for the child looking into the mirror is the “material intellect” and the reflection is the intelligible world over matter.

“Therefore, the death of Dionysus, who is divided into many pieces after seeing his reflection in the mirror, functions as an allegory for the transition from unity to the multiplicity of the material world.”
-David Hernández de la Fuente (14)

Ariadne as Dionysus’s reflection   

For the Neoplatonists, they viewed Dionysus as a whole of this duality but for the sake of this project, there will be diversion towards speculation. Ariadne is Dionysus’s counterpart, she is a mortal woman who undergoes apotheosis, but in comparison to the indefinable immortality of Dionysus (Zoe), Ariadne is feminine, material, physical and dying (Bios). Why would he fall in love with her?

The reason is backward to the feminine and masculine concepts of Tantric philosophy, that the male is destructive and the feminine is creative. In the Dionysian case, Dionysus is the creative force, while Ariadne is the destructive. Ariadne serves as the guide to the afterlife, the holder of the thread of Mystery, she is the living embodiment of Persephone, while Dionysus is the immortal explorer of death, the one at the other end of the thread venturing into the labyrinth. When Dionysus looks into the mirror he sees the face of his beloved wife. His material counterpart. As with Shiva and Parvati, Dionysus is the immaterial, the divine consciousness, while his consort is the material. When the two gods consummate they become one, two opposing forces and unite as a whole, forming the true world soul.

 If after all, Dionysus is all humanity, then he is falling in love with an aspect of himself.

Citations & Notes

1. Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysos, Alain Danielou, 1979

2. https://www.meer.com/en/83512-the-essence-of-tantra-exploring-duality-and-unity

3. Manu Smriti, I, 32. trans. Danielou

4. Dionysos: archetypical image of indestructible life, Carl Kerenyi, 1976

5. A complete narration of this story can be found here: https://youtu.be/T8Ifrczlqig?si=XWhMSZnXX6Xfe-nT

6. Dionysos: archetypical image of indestructible life, Carl Kerenyi, P. 90, 1976

7. This is mentioned by Evans, Kerenyi and Graves. Possibly due to Saint Ariadne of Phrygia

8. Citing Fabian’s insight from the previous course, DMC Ariadne, 2024

9. Dionysos: archetypical image of indestructible life, Carl Kerenyi, PP. 369 – 373, 1976

10. Dionysus and Politics, edited by Filip Doroszewski and Dariusz Karlowicz, Chap 11, written by David Hernández de la Fuente, 2021

11. Saturnalia, Macrobius & fragment 15 DK, Heraclitus, source: Ibid.

12. Often attributed to Olympiodorus, additional info can be found here: https://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Zagreus.html

13. Dionysus and Politics, edited by Filip Doroszewski and Dariusz Karlowicz, Chap 11, written by David Hernández de la Fuente, 2021

14. Ibid.

Is Hellenic Polytheism Closed or Appropriated?

Source: Dionysian Rituals and the Golden Zeus of China by Lucas Christopoulos

I live in Australia, where First Nations people have historically suffered horrific treatment under colonial white authorities. These injustices continue today, with high rates of poverty, unemployment, limited access to education and healthcare, and disproportionate incarceration within Indigenous communities. However, one positive outcome amid this ongoing struggle is the establishment of cultural protections. These legal safeguards prevent outsiders—including members of different Aboriginal tribes—from appropriating traditional practices, languages, rites, art, and stories that are not their own. Such protections are vital, as centuries of discrimination and genocide have placed these traditions at risk. For a non-Indigenous person to use tribal customs or art for personal gain is not only cultural appropriation but also a criminal offence.

In recent years, some self-identified “Ethnic Hellenic Polytheists” have attempted to establish similar protections for ancient Hellenic traditions. While I can understand the reasoning behind this, the comparison to Indigenous cultural protections doesn’t entirely hold up. In some cases, this push for exclusivity veers into dangerous nationalistic rhetoric, raising concerns about ethnic supremacy rather than genuine cultural revivalism.

What does it Mean for a Religion to be Closed?

A closed religion is typically one that is exclusive to a specific group, ethnicity, or location, or requires initiation. These traditions do not actively seek converts through proselytization and generally do not recognise outsiders as adherents without formal permission.

For example, Australian Aboriginal spiritual beliefs are often tied to specific tribal lands and passed down through those raised within that cultural context (frequently known as “The Dreaming”). Even within the same tribe, certain aspects of the belief system may be restricted—some rites are exclusive to men or women, each with their own initiatory customs. This complexity makes the term “closed religion” somewhat simplistic, as it fails to capture the nuances of these traditions.

Additionally, some religions labelled as “closed” do allow outsiders to join under specific conditions, such as undergoing initiation or receiving approval from religious leaders. Others may permit conversion through marriage—certain Jewish sects, for instance, allow Gentiles to convert upon marrying a Jewish partner.

Is Ancient Greek “Religion” Closed?

Defining these belief systems as a religion is complex, as ancient Hellenism—or Hellenic Polytheism—functions similarly to Hinduism in that it encompasses diverse philosophies and sects, some of which may be non-religious or separate from “mainstream” Hellenic Polytheism. However, for the sake of clarity and brevity, I will classify it as a religion in the context of the Pan-Hellenic worship of the Olympian and Greek gods, where cultic expressions of devotion often shared common customs throughout the classical world.

To answer the question posed in the title, the simple answer is no, it is not a closed religion. Hellenic polytheism was a tribal and language-based cultic system that varied across regions while still maintaining core Pan-Hellenic traditions shared among different groups. Despite it often being considered de-centralised it did have important cult centres that were Pan-Hellenic, this includes Delphi, The Delian League and rites like the Mysteries, which were available to everyone who could speak Greek, even slaves.

Athens was particularly known for its religious tourism, welcoming foreigners to participate in major festivals. It was also famous for its theatrical performances, attracting actors from across the ancient world. And let’s not forget sports and artistic competitions which were open to international involvement.

The Ancient Greeks were also prolific colonisers, establishing settlements throughout the Mediterranean, including parts of Western Europe and North Africa. Greek colonies in Italy, North Africa, France, and Spain date as far back as 500 BCE, an exceptionally early period in Ancient Greek history. The Greek world extended into regions such as modern-day Türkiye, Cyprus, Syria, and the Levant. Delphic inscriptions indicate that people from these distant colonies not only participated in religious practices but also made offerings in the sacred city, demonstrating an international presence in Hellenic religious life.

Slavery played a significant role in this cultural exchange. Enslaved people were taken from all over the ancient world, including North-Eastern Europe, Arabia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite their lack of personal freedoms, they were allowed and encouraged to participate in local religious rites.

Given this context, the ancient world was inherently multicultural and multiracial—something expected of an international hub like the Aegean.

That Was Before Alexander (the Great)

Alexander was like a quick burning hot flame. Building on his father’s legacy—who had nearly unified Greece into a single nation—the young king launched a relentless campaign into the Persian Empire, dismantling it with astonishing speed. He conquered all of Asia Minor, Egypt, the Levant (including Jerusalem), and pushed deep into the Near and Far East, establishing Greek kingdoms as far as the Himalayas. He was defeated as he entered India and retreated to Babylon, where he died.

Despite his sudden death, Alexander’s campaigns left behind powerful Greek-ruled kingdoms in the East, many of which became rivals. These kingdoms played a crucial role in spreading Hellenic culture and religion far beyond Greece. Evidence of this influence can be seen as far as China and Japan, with Greek artistic and architectural styles found as far as Southeast Asia.

The Romans

And then, of course, there were the Romans. By the mid-2nd century BCE, the Roman Republic had taken control of Greece. While Roman religion was distinct from Greek religion, the two were deeply interconnected. With Rome’s dominance over Europe and the Near East, Greco-Roman religious practices experienced a resurgence, spreading even further than before.

In Western Europe, Roman influence extended as far as Germany and Britain. In Africa, Roman rule encompassed Egypt, the entire North African coast, and regions deeper into Sub-Saharan Africa, where both people and animals were taken for use in gladiatorial “games.” In the East, Roman religious influence reached Arabia, India, and beyond.

What Can We Take Away from This History Lesson?

From North to South and East to West, Hellenic Polytheism existed and was shared on an international scale, making it arguably the first global religion. There was never a sense of exclusive ownership, closed traditions, or ethnic restrictions—such ideas run contrary to Greek ideals. While mystery cults could be considered “closed” due to their secretive nature, most major ones were open to anyone who wished to participate.

Ancient Greek religion was not only accessible to foreigners but actively embraced foreign influences. In many ways, it was an appropriating religion, often absorbing local deities, temples, and traditions into its own framework. Rather than being rigidly exclusive, it thrived through adaptation and syncretism.

Modern Greek Identity and the Rise of Nationalism

I live in Melbourne (Naarm, by its Indigenous name) in Australia, which is often considered the second-largest Greek city in the world by Hellenic population. This is largely due to the turbulent history of modern Greece and the resulting diaspora in the mid-20th century. Greece never fully recovered from Roman occupation in the 2nd century BCE and, for over two thousand years, has been repeatedly pillaged, plundered, and occupied by foreign powers. We must never forget the genocide and persecution Greeks have suffered throughout history. However, it’s important to recognise that these atrocities were not always committed against the ancient Greeks but rather against people with a different Greek identity and religion. Today, religion is deeply ingrained in Greek national identity, with around 90% of Greeks identifying as Orthodox Christian.

Some may be surprised to learn that modern Greece is younger than Australia as a formal nation. Greece was recognised as an independent state in 1832 and became a republic in 1974. Around the same time as this political shift, the modern Greek neo-pagan movement began to take shape. The Supreme Council of Ethnic Hellenes (YSEE) was officially established in 1997, but efforts to revive the old religion had been brewing for decades through books, magazines, and pamphlets. The rise of this movement is closely tied to the formation of modern Greece as a new republican national identity.

Between 2007 and 2010, Greece experienced an economic collapse, commonly referred to as The Crisis (Η Κρίση, Krísi), from which the country has yet to fully recover. During these hardships, nationalism surged. The Far-Right gained popularity by exploiting public suffering, offering support exclusively to Greek nationals while fostering hostility toward foreigners. A major player in this movement was the ultra-nationalist party Golden Dawn, which adopted Nazi-like symbolism, slogans, and tactics. Like the Nazis, they looked to their so-called pagan roots and infiltrated modern pagan communities, using them to spread nationalist ideology. As a result, open and often vicious hostility toward non-Greeks became increasingly visible.

As with all nationalism, times of crisis drive people to cling to and defend their identity, often leading to efforts to exclude and distance themselves from perceived outsiders. However, this perspective clashes with the historical reality of Hellenic Polytheism, which was never exclusive to Greeks. Ancient Greeks wouldn’t have even identified as Greek in the modern sense. The borders of contemporary Greece bear little relevance to the vast territories of the ancient Greek world. The religious practices of modern Greece are fundamentally opposed to those of ancient Greece. And, most significantly, the people themselves have changed over those two thousand years of hardship.

Conclusion

Australian Aboriginal cultures are often regarded as the oldest continuous cultures on Earth. The occupation of Australia by white settlers is merely a blink of an eye in the long history of its Native peoples. Meanwhile, Greece has experienced periods of their own international dominance and long stretches of foreign occupation, subjugation, and destruction.

Legal protections for Australian Aboriginal traditions serve as a crucial effort to preserve what remains before it is lost forever. In contrast, many Greek traditions have already faded into history—fragments of a distant past that modern movements may seek to revive but can never fully reclaim. This does not mean that modern Greek pagans cannot honour their heritage, but rather that no single group can claim exclusive ownership of a belief system that, by its very nature, was never closed.

Rather than focusing on exclusivity, the revival of Hellenic Polytheism can embrace the ancient Greek ideals of cultural exchange, adaptation, and hospitality. Instead of closing its doors, it can thrive by engaging with the broader international community, much like the ancient Greeks did over two and a half millennia ago.